A SUBFIELD WITHIN PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

just a research paper

A Subfield Within

Physical Anthropology

 

 

 

 

 

 

Kindra Hill

11-28-11

 

“As a forensic anthropologist, I tend to see bodies that are long past their prime �" bodies that are bloated, blasted, burned, buggy, rotted, sawed, gnawed, liquefied, mummified, or dismembered. Some are even skeletonized, reduced to bare bones�" bare, but brimming with data”(Dr. Bass & Jefferson 33-34).

Within Anthropology there are four different fields and many different subfields within each field. One field within anthropology is Physical anthropology; it is the study of human biology within the framework of evolution. Physical anthropology has a few different subfields within it and one of the subfields is Forensic anthropology. There are other fields within Physical/Biological anthropology such as; Paleopathology, it is the investigation “of such entities as trauma, certain infectious diseases (including syphilis and tuberculosis), nutritional deficiencies, and numerous other conditions that leave evidence in bone (Fig. 1-8)” (Jurmain, Nelson 14). Osteology is also a subfield, which is the study of the human skeleton. Although there are many other subfields within Physical anthropology, Forensics is the field I am most interested in.

Forensic anthropology “was formally established in 1972” (Eckert 343). It is mainly the study or concentration of “human biological characteristics at the population level, with special attention to the uncovering the uniqueness that sets one individual apart from all others” (Eckert 343). You see “Bones are life’s records. The forces of a lifetime �" diet, accidents, age �" are inscribed upon them. Forensics experts use bones to interpret these stories, or so-called osteobiographies, which can identify a person’s identity and cause of death” (Nuwer, New York Times).  They are “commonly called upon to help identify skeletal remains in cases of disaster or other situations where a human body has been found” (Jurmain, Nelson 14). Forensic anthropology is also “a field directly related to Osteology and Paleopathology” (Jurmain, Nelson 14). “One sub discipline of osteology is the study of disease and trauma in archeologically derived skeletal populations. Paleopathology is a prominent subfield that investigates the incidence of such entities…” (Jurmain, Nelson 14).

“Many situations occur in which forensic anthropologists are called upon by the police and other law enforcement agencies to assist in identification by using their knowledge of skeletal biology”… most generally “the anthropologist is called upon to provide clues as to the personal identity of a deceased individual or individuals (through analysis of partially skeletonized remains), but also occasionally asked to perform other tasks” (Jurmain, Nelson 499). Some of these other tasks “are: to identify skeletal trauma, match remains from a suspected scene of a crime with the corpus delecti, sort human from nonhuman remains, and, sometimes, to either compare a photograph to a living person, or to compare two photographs to determine the identity of the persons pictured” (Jurmain, Nelson 499). Forensic anthropologists help solve the identity of all “skeletal assessments” …by beginning, “with what Krogman³ referred to as the “big four”- age, sex, race, and stature” (Eckert 346).

Age is found several ways but here is how you find it with skeletal remains. “Currently, dental identification represents the most useful of the scientific methods…” (Eckert 305). Although, “the dental method is not without disadvantages. Dental records are dispersed throughout dental offices across the country and can be more difficult to locate than fingerprint records stored in central repository” … “Another shortcoming of teeth is that they can be altered (decayed, filled, or extracted) after the last antemortem entry” (Eckert 304).

“The teeth develop in a regular and sequential manner until the age of 15 years, permitting an age estimation within 1 year” … “Since enamel and dentin form a at a relatively fixed daily rate, crude age assessment is theoretically possible in deceased children by measuring the thickness of tooth structure beyond the neonatal line. The permanent dentition begins to calcify at birth, starting with the first molar and continuing until the root of the second molar is complete by age 15 ±1 year” … “Determination of ages between 15 and 22 years depends on the development of third molars (wisdom teeth) which are the most variable in the dentition” (Eckert 306).

There is also bone growth; “Postcranial bones are preceded by a cartilage model that is gradually replaced by bone, both in the primary growth centers (the diaphysis) and in the secondary centers (the ends of the bones, or epiphyses)” … “The bone continues to grow until the epiphyses fuse to the diaphysis. Because this fusion occurs at different times in different bones, the age of an individual can be determined by which epiphyses have fused and which have not (see Figs. B - 5 and B - 6)” (Jurmain, Nelson 502). Although, “Females mature more quickly than males, so a one to two year difference will have to be factored into the age determination (in those cases, of course, where we can first determine sex). Once a person has reached a physiological maturity (by the early 20s), the determination of age becomes more difficult. Several techniques are used, including the progressive, regular changes in the pubic symphyseal face (the most common technique), in the sternal ends of the ribs, in the auricular surface of the ilium, in the ectocranial (outside the cranium) and endocranial (inside the cranium) suture closures, and in cellular changes determined by microscopic examination of the cross section of various long bones” (Jurmain, Nelson 503).

Before we begin, “A word about race: In recent years, the very concept of distinct races has come under attack. Race is merely a cultural construct, says one recent school of thought, not an objective physical or genetic feature”(Dr. Bass, Jefferson 39).

The determination of race “ is often difficult, however, as most of the morphological characteristics we use to distinguish race follow a continuum; that is, one trait is more often, but not exclusively, associated with one race”…”Races of the world have been divided in different ways in history, but many anthropologists today identify five or six basic groups: Mongoloids (including Japanese, Chinese, and North, Central, and South American Indians), Negroids (including African and U.S. Blacks), Caucasoids (including Europeans, and other people with European ancestry, West Asians, Asian Indians, and some North American peoples),  Australoids (Australian Aborigines), and Polynesians)(Jurmain, Nelson 504).

There are two ways to determine race; the” dental determination, 308-310” and the “skeletal analysis, 354-357) (Eckert 388). “Racial determination is not reliable on the basis of teeth and jaws, although certain morphologic attributes show statistical differences in frequency between races. No single trait is diagnostic and a cluster of traits more safely predicts race.”… “1. Shovel-shaped incisors �" maxillary incisors show a distinct shovel shape in 85 to 99% of mongoloids.�™⁴ This is attributable to prominent lingual marginal ridges that render a scooped appearance to the lingual contour of the tooth (Figure 12.6). Two to nine percent of Caucasoids and 12% of Negroids show shoveling, although it is less distinct.²⁴ 2. Protostylid �" this accessory cusp appears on the mesio-buccal surface of mandibular first molars and is seen almost exclusively in Pima Indians. Its residua appears as a deep pit common in other Amerindians, Eskimoes, or those with Native American ancestry.^25,26” (Eckert 308-309), there are many other ways to tell racial diversity in each race.

In skeletal analysis we all “look very different, but are all skeletally “white” even though some Indians may have dark brown skin” … “In the skeleton, cranio-facial morphology is the best indicator of racial phenotype (Figure 13.7). A long, low, narrow skull exhibiting alveolar pronathism (forward protrusion of the jaws) and a wide, flat nose with smooth sills is characteristically black. Whites are typified by a high, round, or square skull, an orthognathic or straight face, and long, narrow, protruding nose with sharp sills” … “Although not as obvious, racial differences can be found morphologically and metrically in many parts of the body.⁵⁶ Whites exhibit noticeable anterior curvature of the femur as compared with the straighter femora of blacks.⁵⁷ The pelvis is narrower in blacks, but this is better detected through measurements.⁵⁸ Size differentials reflect disparities in total body proportions” (Eckert 355).  Although “it must be pointed out that, first, sex must be established (the formulae vary for males and females) and, second, the method is devised to answer only a limited question…” (Jurmain, Nelson 505).

“In the normal living and still fleshed dead, sex is a discrete variable �" one is clearly either male or female.” … “If the adult skeleton is complete or at least has an intact pelvis, sex can usually be determined with 100% accuracy.” … Although “forensic skeletons are rarely complete and the available bones may not be obviously dimorphic” … “A thorough knowledge of cranial morphology can allow experts to approach 90 to 95% accuracy. However, the observer must be familiar with population-specific variants because sex linked characteristics vary from one group to another. In general, however, males tend to have rougher bones with larger crests and ridges, because these are often sites of muscle attachment (Figure 13.5)” Quantification of size differentials sometimes allow a reasonable degree of separation of the sexes. Although there are a number of metric techniques from the skull and pelvis, this type of analysis is especially useful in long bones where morphological differences are not obvious. Discriminant function formulae have been calculated from the dimensions of numerous bones and their substructures, but these methods are highly population specific, even within the three major race groups” (Eckert 353).

“Almost every bone contributes to the overall stature of an individual; however, the relative contribution varies greatly. Singularly and collectively, the femur and tibia are the most important components of height. In contrast, a foot bone has very little input. Therefore, the best assessment of height is obtained from regression formulae derived from femoral and tibial lengths” … “Because skeletal biologists and forensic anthropologists are often confronted with damaged bones, formulae have been devised to estimate stature from fragmentary remains.^59,60 First, the total length of the bone is extrapolated from the fragment, then  that figure is used for the final regression” … “Body proportions vary by both race and sex.⁴⁶ Blacks, for examples, have longer limb bones relative to height than whites. Thus, it is necessary to establish sex and race in order to use the correct regression formulae for the estimation of stature” … “Some clues to body build can also be found in the bones since they act as sites of muscle attachment. Prominent crests and ridges and roughness of the bones indicate that a person was muscular at some point during life. Smooth bony surfaces and small muscle origins are characteristic of a gracile or sedentary individual. It is important to keep in mind that although males inherently have more muscle mass than females, so-called “wimpy” �"looking males will not have as well developed attachment sites as female body builders” … “Although average weight can be approximated for a given height, there is no way to ascertain obesity from the skeleton⁶²” (Eckert 357).

After all “remains have been limited to a specific age, sex, and race group, an attempt must be made to establish the identity of the victim by searching for factors of individualization --- traits that set on 5’7” to 5’9” white male in his 40s apart from all the others that meet this description” (Eckert 357 to 358). Although it may not be the forensic anthropologists “job” they help with finding such traits but mainly the “Forensic photography” … which “is a sector of scientific photography focusing on criminal evidence. Forensic photographers use a variety of specialized materials and techniques, including infrared and ultraviolet films, macro-photography, photomicrography, photogrammetry and sensitometry” (Universities and colleges), scientists find it by:

“Facial Reconstruction (also termed facial reproduction) is a process used when other Identification procedures (including fingerprints and dental matches) have been unsuccessful.  Two different methods of producing a face on the skull are employed: a portrait of the individual using clues from the bones of the face; and more direct, three-dimensional method of applying clay to the skull (or to a plaster cast of the skull). These techniques employ both science and art: the physical anthropologist discovers the age, sex, and race of the skull, but there is no direct evidence from bone that indicates the eye color, hair color and style, lip form, or degree of wrinkling or fleshiness in the individual” (Jurmain, Nelson 508).

            As in everything in life, this field requires a certain amount of training and education. “The nature of this field demands a very high level of education and experience. An undergraduate student interested in becoming a forensic anthropologist should build a solid background by taking courses that will give a thorough grounding in biology, anatomy and physiology, osteology, chemistry, archaeology, and cultural and physical anthropology. It is important to join a well respected organization such as the AAFS (in North America) as a student trainee to establish a connection to the field and get to know the experts in it.” … “A Ph.D. plus 3 years of experience is the minimum requirement for eligibility to take the examination for board certification” (Eckert 363-364).

Although it may seem like a piece of pie, “forensic anthropologist must possess an in-depth knowledge of a wide range of highly specialized technical and scientific subjects” … “one cannot simply pick up a “how to” manual and understand the anatomical and technical nuances necessary to properly analyze a skeleton and its evidentiary context” (Eckert 364-365). As forensic anthropologist, and other scientists in the similar fields, it is in ways our duty to help solve the many questions that can linger in a case involving the dead or wrongfully tortured but not always will it end up being the innocent, like a rare eclipse there are those who do deserve what happens but it is still their duty to tell those who matter what happened, how and most of all who they were. “This is especially true in today’s litigious society where a skilled lawyer can destroy an otherwise airtight case if an expert opinion is weak or lack.⁷² Moreover, an otherwise strong criminal case may be jeopardized if the credibility of the forensic anthropologist is challenged because of a deficiency in training or lack of familiarity with the most current literature and the advantages, liabilities, and limitations of it” (Eckert 365).

            Although I am not yet a student in this field, I do truly believe that nobody should ever be forgotten. There are many who believe that everyone fears the unknown in death, but in reality life is unknown, life is like a game you play and every new day brings a new twist and turn. You never know just where you’ll end up or what path to take that keeps life from diving deeper into the dark abyss.                                                             

Reviews

[Coyote Poetry]

This is amazing. I have to come back and read again. You create a interesting story that open the door to thoughts. The study of the body is very detail and takes many years. I like the way you gave description and logic. Than you for the interesting story. Will add to my favorite to read again.
Coyote